Forms of Jewish Ceremonial and Worship, and Itinerary of Benjamin Tudela

PUBLICATIONS OF THE GENEALOGICAL SOCIETY OF PENNSYLVANIA . VoL X. MARCH. 1927 . No. 1. P FORMS OF JEWISH CEREMONIAL AND WORSHIP, AND ITINERARY OF BENJAMIN OF TUDELA BY CHARLES J. COIIEN. S AN ADDRESS DELIVERED BEFORE THE GENEALOGICAL SOCIETY OF PENNSYLVANIA, AT THE ANNUAL MEETING , MARCH 7 , 1927. G It is my purpose this evening’ to include in my address two distinct subjects. The first has to do with the forms of Jewish ceremonial and worship ; and in the second we shall follow the itinerary of a notable scholar of the twelfth century as he journeyed through different countries of the Old World noting conditions as he went. I. In opening this brief section on genealogy it may be permitted to refer to the name of Cohen, widely used as a surname in modem times since the practice of the final name amongst the lineal descendants of Aaron the high-priest was introduced on the continent of Europe, as late as the period of Napoleon Bonaparte soon after his assumption of the Imperial throne. He then issued a proclamation requiring all his subjects of the Jewish faith to adopt surnames so as to be in accord with their neighbors and in order that they should assume the rights and duties of citizenship. This was (1) 1927 Copyright The Genealogical Society of Pennsylvania PGM Vol X No.1 2 Forms of Jewish Ceremonial and Worship } especially essential throughout the German Empire where the individual was known, for example, as Charles the son of Henry following the Biblical pattern. Registry offices were opened and those belonging to the Tribe of Levi, and proving their descent from Aaron , were given the name of Cohen , which signifies Priest and is the exact Hebrew word both in consonant and vowel. S P It is to be my privilege this evening to recount some of the ceremonies that have survived with the Jewish people through many centuries of opposition and persecution. The liturgy was first formed in the second century of the present era, founded upon the writings of Ezra, 459 B. C. E ., and although added to, it has remained substantially as originally arranged. It is a compilation of Psalms and invoca tions, and an expression of thankfulness to the Almighty for blessings vouchsafed. An earnest plea to be relieved from the distress of persecution was added in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and whilst happily this has ceased to he necessary amongst civilized nations, it is unfortunately yet applicable in Roumania and other countries with the claim to modern civilization. TIIE WORD JEW. 7 7 There are three English words by which the modern Jew G is known : Hebrew, Israelite, Jew. The term Israelite is, as is apparent, taken from the name Israel, which was given to Jacob after his encounter with the angel, in which the text of Genesis recites, “ And he wrestled with the angel and prevailed ; ” the word Israel in Hebrew Yisrael meaning “ Prince of God ” The word Jew found its way into the English language, the term being found as Judea in Anglo-Saxon Gospels of the year 1000. When the Normans settled in England and incorporated many of their French words into the English language thereafter they used the old French term Juieu , which is found in many forms of English ; this word , derived from the Latin accusative Judeeum, in turn came from the Greek and originally from the Aramaic. They relate back to the cognomen for the tribe of Judah, which was intended to apply to all Israelites. The word Jehudi is found in the books of Nehemiah and Esther. . — — " 1927 Copyright The Genealogical Society of Pennsylvania PGM Vol X No.1 Including the “ Reading of the Law . y r 3 The name Megillah , The Roll, is given to the Book of Esther ( Fig. 66 ) , which is read on the day called Purim, occurring in the month of March, being in commemoration of the deliverance of the Persian Jews from the plot of Hainan, The book is entirely secular, the name of God not being mentioned therein. The events described occurred in the reign of King Xerxes, who is known in the Book of Esther as Ahashuerus, who had deposed his Queen Vashti for disobedience of orders Many beautiful maidens "were brought before him so that he might choose a successor ; he selected Esther as being the most comely. At this time the Grand Vizier Hainan commanded Mordecai the Jew ( who was the cousin of Esther the Queen ) to do obeisance to him Upon Mordecai ’s refusal Hainan informed the king that the Jews in his dominions were disloyal and he agreed to pay 10,000 silver talents into the royal treasury for permission to exterminate the race. The king granted his request. This became known to Esther, who at great per sonal risk went before the king to ask to have the decree rescinded. Aliashuerus, delighted with her appearance, held out his scepter in token of clemency and promised to dine with her in her own apartments. At the banquet, when Esther preferred her request, both the king and the grand vizier learned for the first time that the queen was a Jewess Ahashuerus granted her petition, but the laws of the Medes and Persians being irrevocable, permission only could be given to the Jews to stand on their defense, which they successfully accomplished, and although granted by the same proclamation the power to pillage, they refused to avail themselves of their right to plunder. . - . G S P . PERSONAL NAMES. Before the exile, children were not named after their relatives, and even in royal families none of the twenty-one kings of Judah was named after a predecessor or after David, the founder of the family. Personal peculiarities gave rise to names, as Laban ( white or blond ) . After Joseph had interpreted the dream of Pharaoh and the latter had placed him as ruler over the kingdom he changed liis name to Eaphenath pabieach, signifying “ Revealer of Secret Things.” Moses named one son Gershom ( ‘‘ I was a stranger there ” ) , for he said, “ I have been a sojourner in a strange land ; ” the other Eliezer, “ My God was my help, ” meaning “ The God of my - 1927 Copyright The Genealogical Society of Pennsylvania PGM Vol X No.1 4 Forms of Jewish Ceremonial and Worship , G S P father was my help and delivered me from the sword of Pharaoh , ” There were no trade names in the Bible corresponding to the Smith or Muller of England and Germany, but names taken from objects are found, especially among females, such as Rebecca (sheep rope ) , Peninnah ( from coral ) , Keren-happuch ( from a box of face paint ) ; abstract names were applied to women, such as Michal ( power ) . In the names of one hundred and twenty persons selected at random, eighty-four are derived from animals or plants ; Leah (“ gazelle ” ) , Rachel ( “ Ewe ” ) , Oreb ( “ raven ” ) and Zeeb ( “ wolf ” ) were princes of the Midianites ; and Caleb ( the dog ) was the founder of the chief Judean tribe ; Jonah is the equivalent of “ dove ; ” Zipporah “ a bird , ” Deborah “ bee.” Esther ’s Jewish name was Hadassah, which means * * myrtle. 5 ’ After the exile, biblical names came into use, many ending in A, which are Aramaic, and are found in the books of Ezra and Nehemiah. Mordecai is derived from the Babylonian god ( Marduke ) as are Belteshazzar, Shenazar and Sheshbazzar from other deities. The prevalence of the name of Alexander amongst Jews in the Orient is explained as follows : At the time of Alexander the Great, an ordinance was issued that his statue should be erected in every place of worship ; the Jewish authorities pleaded earnestly for its abrogation as to the synagogue, explaining their inability to assent, and the compromise was effected that every male bora to Jewish parents during the following decade should receive the name of Alexander. The use of Arabic names became general in the later centuries ; as an instance Al-faraj occurs as the name of the translator at Girgenti, and it is considered the remote origin of the curious name of Admiral Farragut, whose grandfather came from Minorca. As is well known, surnames were little used until modem times ; in the Austrian empire an edict was issued in 1787 compelling the Jews resident in that country to adopt surnames ; officers were appointed to register, and if an applicant refused to select a name the commission forced one upon him ; this led to the occurrence of artificial surnames the traces of which are seen to the present time. Napoleon, by his decree of July, 1808, insisted upon the Jews adopting fixed names, 1927 Copyright The Genealogical Society of Pennsylvania PGM Vol X No.1 Including the “ Reading of the Law.7 1 5 and in Bohemia the provisions of the law of 1787 restricting them to biblical names were not rescinded until 1836. ' THE FEAST OF TABERNACLES. 7 } The Feast of Tabernacles was instituted for an agricultural and pastoral nation. It was one of the festivals on which all who resided away from the sacred city were commanded to make their pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and there bring offerings as a testimony to the Lord. i And thou shalt rejoice in thy festival, thou and thy son and thy daughter, thy man servant, and thy maid servant, and the Levite and the stranger, and the fatherless and the widow that are within thy gates, 7 7 And the reason for this observance is given in the words “ Because the Lord thy God shall bless thee in all thy increase and in all the works of thy hands, and therefore shalt thou surely rejoice. J J The adverse influence of a fate that nothing could change converted the Jewish, race from an agricultural to an urban people and naturally the celebration of Succoth ( Tabernacles ) changed with the altered conditions. A voluntary change towards city life is noticeable in our times in the agricultural communities of several of the leading nations, particularly in America and England And yet husbandry, the greatest and most useful of all the occupations, is the mainstay of every progressive nation ; and so long as that remains true, the celebration of the Feast of Tabernacles, with its memories of national greatness based on the agricultural life of the Jews of I Palestine in ancient days, must exert a positive power for good and a direct influence to draw many of the people to the soil. ‘11 believe in a spade and an acre of good ground, 77 said Emerson. “ Whoso cuts a straight path to his own living by the help of God , in the sun and rain , and sprouting grain, seems to me a universal working man. He solves the problem of life, not for one, but for all meu of sound body. ” As in the case of the other festivals, this, too, is a commemoration of the deliverance from Egyptian bondage. From a landless people, Israel emerged to the full stature of manhood when he took to the soil and built a habitation that w- as founded on the most permanent of all the interests of mankind. The lulab ( Fig. 67 ) is the name given to the festive paltn branch which with the etrog citron was commanded to be used on this feast. The three constituents are S P t G . — 1927 — Copyright The Genealogical Society of Pennsylvania — PGM Vol X No.1 P S G 1927 Copyright The Genealogical Society of Pennsylvania PGM Vol X No.1 6 Forms of Jewish Ceremonial and Worship , 1. A shoot of the palm tree in its folded state before the leaves are spread out. 2. Three twigs of myrtle. 3. Two willow branches. These constituting with the citron ( Fig. G 8 ) i the four species / ' In the second Temple it was waved during the recitation expressive of thanksgiving or prayer ; facing east and holding it in the right hand , with the citron in the left, the worshipper shook the former in the directions east, south, west and north , upward and downward, forward and back ward ; this was in acknowledgment of God s sovereignty over nature. They were carried in procession around the reading desk, whilst the 118th Psalm, 25th verse was chanted An ancient writer of song, commemorating the observance of these customs, compares the t - P . G S Citron with the heart, Lulab with the spine, Myrtle with the eyes, Willow with the lips, bringing together these elements of the human body in a poem of praise to God. Another incident in connection with the Feast of Tabernacles is the command to dwell in booths ; the statute reads : “ In booths shall ye dwell seven days ; in order that your generations may know that I caused the children of Israel to dwell in booths, when I brought them forth out of the land of Egypt. In modern times and in Western countries each congregation provides a Succah or tabernacle properly garnished, in which the congregants assemble ; a suitable thanksgiving service is held so that the memorial is retained. J > TRUMPET. It is not only the solitary ancient musical instrument actually preserved in the Mosaic ritual, but is the oldest form of wind instrument known to be retained in use in the world. ( Fig, 72.) It was used originally, as noted in the Pentateuch, to announce the new moon and solemn feasts, and especially at the month of Tishri, the beginning of the civil year, September, and above all for military purposes like the modern bugle to give the signal for going out to battle, for the announcement of a victory and for a recall of the troops. It was also used as a musical instrument in religious proces sions. It is made of a ram ’s horn. The oldest wind instruSHOFAR ENGLISH - 1927 Copyright The Genealogical Society of Pennsylvania PGM Vol X No.1 P S G 1927 Copyright The Genealogical Society of Pennsylvania PGM Vol X No.1 Including the “ Reading of the Law . 7 ment was the horn of an animal with a natural cavity and a mouth-piece formed by cutting’ off the end. The etymology of the Hebrew word Shofar is found in the Assyrian “ Sappartu , ” meaning the horn of a wild goat and subsequently used for horn in general It is interesting to note that the Hebrew word Queren , Latin cornu and English horn , are all used for a wind instrument and for the horn of an animal. HABDALAH, P This indicates the prayers by means of which a division is made between the Sabbath and the following work-days. This is begun by a benediction over a cup of wine ; afterward brief blessings over spices and a freshly kindled light. ( Fig. 73.) Reasons for the employment of spices are : that the sense of smell , as the most delicate, affords not a gross material pleasure, but rather a spiritual one ; and that the perfume of spices is therefore a comfort to the over-soul of the Sabbath , which grieves when the holy day departs. This ceremony is followed by the singing of a series of hymns. HEZUZAH literally i door -post. J ’ This is an ancient custom, since Josephus in the first cen- S £ - tury speaks of its employment as an old and well established custom and writes, “ The greatest benefits of God are to be written on the doors in order that His benevolent providence may be known everywhere. ” In the tube is a piece of parchment inscribed with the verses from Deuteronomy covering the appeal by Moses for the observance of the laws and precepts, closing with the words i l And thou shalt write them upon the door posts of thy house, and upon thy gates.” On the outer side is inscribed the word Shaddai God. The tube is affixed to the upper part of the right hand door post and is generally so placed in the residences of the Orthodox at the present time. G " - — - - PHYLACTERIES ( Hebrew “ tefillin ’ 7 ) . In our Academy of Fine Arts is an imposing statue of marble, the work of W. W Story, the distinguished American sculptor. The artist has named the figure “ Jerusalem ” ; she is attired in the prayer-shawl ( Hebrew “ Tallith ” ) with the phylacteries ( Hebrew “ Tefillin ” ) placed on the forehead. . 1927 Copyright The Genealogical Society of Pennsylvania PGM Vol X No.1 Forms of Jewish Ceremonial and Worship , 8 This is the poet ’s license, since the use of the phylactery was by men only ; it is founded on the verses in Exodus and Deuteronomy referring to the commands issued by the law giver Moses, ‘ £ Thou shalt bind them for a sign upon thy hand , and they shall be as frontlets between thy eyes.” They are used at the present time by those Jews who observe the orthodox customs that have prevailed for more than two thousand years, since there are references in Josephus and writers of an even earlier period of their use at the daily prayer The small box contains the four Scriptural passages referred to ; they are written in the square Hebrew character on fine strips of parchment. - . AREANG KANFOT ( also called Tsitsit ) . . G S P The four-cornered garment or Tallit Katon ( lesser tallit ) . To the four corners are fastened the fringes. This is worn by male persons, following the commandment ( Numbers xv, 37-41, and Deuteronomy xxii, 12 ) , and is worn under the upper garment during the entire day. It was adopted by the European Jews in the time of persecution, when they had to refrain from exhibiting the outer garment with fringes, The wearing of the latter was finally restricted to the synagogue, whilst the precept to wear fringes at all times was fulfilled in the wearing of the Arbang Kanfot. To the wearer, the Tsitsit ( fringes) were a reminder of the duty of the Jew toward the Law Like the Phylacteries on the head and arm and the Meznzah on the doorpost, the Tsitsit on the garment was in tended to serve a like purpose. Subsequent to the French Revolution, under the influence of Moses Mendelssohn , the Jews living in northern and west ern Europe were induced to adopt the German language, and in France similar conditions resulted . In the latter country, the first Napoleon in 1807 called into being the French. San hedrin, which formed a landmark for the new era The first question, still of great importance even in our days, was as to whether the J ewish people living in France acknowledged it as their country, felt bound to defend it and to obey her civil laws. The question as to loyalty to their adopted country, the delegates answered spontaneously by proclaiming their readiness to defend France until death , and they framed a declaration as to their relations to the law of the land which we would - - . - - 1927 Copyright The Genealogical Society of Pennsylvania PGM Vol X No.1 Including the “ Reading of the Law . J 7 9 - S P still accept , to wit, “ that their religion makes it their duty to consider the law of the state as the supreme law in civil and political matters ; that consequently, should their religious code, or its various interpretations, contain civil or political commands at variance with those of the French code, those commands would , of course , cease to influence and govern them, since they must, above all, acknowledge and obey the laws of the state .’ > As an instance of the brotherhood of man that prevails in Israel, I will give a circumstance in the family life of my grandparents : At the close of the Peninsular War, in 1806, a man named John Moss was traveling through France and Italy selling articles of English manufacture. On the occasion of one of his visits to London , it being Friday afternoon , the eve of the Jewish Sabbath , my grandmother was summoned to reply to an inquiry from a stranger, a man of sedate but prepos sessing appearance, who said that he was a stranger and asked permission to join Mrs. Cohen ’s family for Sabbath eve prayers. This was readily accorded, as was the custom, and the stranger, who was this John Moss referred to, became a frequent visitor and intimate friend of my grandparents. He entered into business relations with my grandfather, the late Solomon Cohen , who was so impressed with his person ality and ability that he extended to him a credit enabling him to carry on an extensive business on the Continent. His only relative was an aged mother, who lived in Petticoat Lane and refused to move from there, and would accept from her son only a small weekly allowance, which was often conveyed to her by the members of my grandfather ’s family. Some years afterwards, in the course of conversation , it was discovered that my grandfather and this John Moss had been at school together in London in their tenth year. He died in London in 1865, a bachelor, and by his will bequeathed his fortune to the children of my grandparents in recognition of the hospi tality that had originally been shown to him , a stranger, and of the courtesy and friendship that had existed through a long series of years devotedly maintained after the death of my grandparents by my father ’s brother, the late B. S. Cohen , of London , who, with his wife and their children, ministered to the old gentleman ’s care and happiness Michael Gratz, of Philadelphia , married Miriam Simon , of - G ! - . 1927 Copyright The Genealogical Society of Pennsylvania PGM Vol X No.1 10 Forms of Jewish Ceremonial and Worship , Lancaster, Pa., and had twelve children , the most notable of whom was Hyman Gratz (1776-1867 ) , for years president of the Pennsylvania Company for Insurances on Lives and Grant ing Annuities ; one of the founders, director and treasurer of the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts ; treasurer of the Congregation Mikveh Israel, Philadelphia, 1824-1856. His sister, Rebecca Gratz, is well known to all Philadelphians. In these early years places of Jewish worship were un known in smaller towns, hence it was incumbent upon the devout to carry with him his law or Torah, and the one now shown to you was that of the Simon-Gratz family of Lancaster, later coming into the possession of the Philadelphia congregation as an heirloom. ( Fig. 74.) The wording on the top reads : “ Know before whom thou standest. ” On the representation of the two tables of stone are the initial words of the Ten Commandments ; inside of the folding doors is the Shemang Yisrael, “ Hear, 0 Israel, ’’ the proclamation of Faith. Within is a sepher torah, or five books of Moses, written in miniature, which will be described in showing a modern scroll. My great-grandfather, Joseph Cohen, was a member of the Gratz-Simon household in the eighteenth century, and it is quite possible that he himself transcribed the manuscript, since I have a document in Hebrew signed by him evidencing his skill in that respect. - G S P - — THE SCROLL OF THE LAW ( In Hebrew Sepher Torah ) is the Pentateuch written on a scroll of parchment. ( Fig. 75. ) There are in the Pentateuch 613 Precepts divided into two classes, 248 affirmative, 365 negative. They correspond in number with the component parts of man, 248 the members of his body, 365 his sinews. These commands are religious, civil and moral, designed to insure the perfect good of the individual and of humanity at large. The idea has prevailed that the body, the home of the soul, should be a fit abiding place for it. It must be written on the skin of a clean animal ( parch ment ) , prepared especially with chemicals to render it durable ; the writing is executed by means of a reed grown in Palestine, or a quill, not only to perpetuate the ancient custom, but a steel pen would not be used since steel is a sign of war and should be excluded, as it was in the building of the Temple - . 1927 Copyright The Genealogical Society of Pennsylvania PGM Vol X No.1 Including the “ Reading of the Law .” 11 S P The text is of square Hebrew characters ; the ink is made from a special formula and must be black. Parchment naturally was much more extensively used in ancient times than at present, since not only were all important state documents so written , but it was originally used for private records. According to Pliny, it was introduced in Pergamos about 200 B. C,, at a time when the supply of papyrus was threatened on account of Ptolemy stopping its exportation from Egypt ; its manufacture was urged aud came to be an article of great importance as an export, the word taking its name from Pergamos. The reading of the Law has been one of the most powerful factors of instruction and education in the world ; even the rise of Christianity and Islam was made possible chiefly through its custom ary reading and that of the prophets on the various days of rest, when it was accompanied by an interpretation applicable to the needs of the time . Koran ( derived from the word Kara, to read ) signifies the reading ; that which ought to be read. It belongs to our earliest records ; Josephus, who lived at the time of Christ, wrrites : t c The Law-giver showed the Law to be the best and the most necessary means of instruction by enjoining the people to assemble not once or twice, but every week, while abstaining from all other work in order to hear the Law and learn it in a thorough manner a thing which all other law-givers seem to have neglected. The word “ Pentateuch ” is a Greek adaptation of the expression IIa mishah Humashe Torah ( five-fifths of the Law ) applied to the books. In Hebrew these are named by the first words of each section Bereshit ( Genesis ) , Shemot ( Exodus ) , Vayikra ( Leviticus ) , Bamidbar ( Numbers ) and Debarim ( Deuteronomy ) . In the Septuagint they were named as indicating their contents : Genesis, “ the beginning of things ; ” Exodus, “ the exodus from captivity ; ” Leviticus, “ Levitical Laws ; ” Numbers, the “ Numbers ” of the Israelites ; and Deuteronomy, the “ repetition of the Law. In ancient Israel a rule prevailed that a copy of the Pentateuch was unlimited in value ; there wras an ordinance that the inhabitants of the city might oblige one another to protect the scroll of the Law, developing a knowledge of the syna gogue, whilst the significance paid to the Bible greatly influenced the distribution of the copies and led to the foundation. G — 7 7 — — 37 - 1927 Copyright The Genealogical Society of Pennsylvania PGM Vol X No.1 Forms of Jewish Ceremonial and Worship> 12 of libraries ; the highest ideal of the young and old , and of great and small, was the study of the Law, thus forming the basis of that indomitable eagerness of Jewish youth for edu cation In the synagogue it is read at the morning service of the Sabbath and holy days, on Sabbath afternoons, and in ancient times on Monday and Thursday mornings for the villagers who came to the city for market and court days, a custom that still prevails. On Sabbath morning seven are called to the reading desk in order to give an opportunity to each congre gant in turn to receive this honor ; in former times the re cipient read the section assigned to him , but in later years the minister reads the entire series of sections for the day, the congregant following the words as pointed out. The order of precedence is as follows : - . P - —— The Cohen the descendant of Aaron , the high priest ; The Levite the descendant from the Levitical tribe ; The Israelite not belonging to the priestly or Levitical fami ly, S — followed by four others of the last-named class. The minister is supported by the president of the congregation ( or senior warden, as it may be termed ) The scroll of the Law is carried from the ark to the reading desk by an unmarried man selected from the congregation , and after its covering has been removed it is exhibited to the congregation On entering the synagogue the worshipper has put on this greater Tallith or prayer scarf ( Fig. 76 ) , and pronounces the following : “ Blessed art Thou, 0 Lord , who hast sanctified us with Thy commandments, and commanded us to wear the garment of fringes. The Tallith is a mantle with fringe at the four corners, frequently called a prayer-shawl, wrorn over the garments, and in the orthodox form of worship always in the synagogue during the Sabbath and festival services, but not in the evening, except on the eve of the Day of Atonement By the minister it is frequently worn over the head during exceptionally sacred portions of the service. It is woven of white wool or silk, with blue stripes at the ends, and is used in compliance with the instructions in Numbers 15-38 and following. The use of the Tallith probably suggested the Roman “ Pal- G . . ? 3 , . 1927 Copyright The Genealogical Society of Pennsylvania PGM Vol X No.1 Including the “ Reading of the Law .9 9 13 Hum / ’ as well as the other various forms of mantles and scarfs worn to-day by the clergy. The verses of the song of Haazeenu ( Deuteronomy xxxii, 1-43 ) are placed in seventy double rows ; this is the section that occurred on the Sabbath of my thirteenth birthday, the occasion of my confirmation and admission to the privileges of the synagogue. Descended from Aaron the High Priest , my right was to be called first to read from the scroll as follows : I will read one verse in Hebrew, using the yad or hand ( Fig. 77 ) to indicate the words, a custom that is probably as ancient as the synagogue itself , and will follow with the Eng lish translation. The yad is a silver pointer to guide the reader of the books of the Law, in which the lines are written together. The word used yad means hand, and had its origin from the priestly hand. - — — P - - HAAZEENU xxxn . 1. Give ear, O ye heavens, and I will speak ; and let the earth hear the words of my mouth. 2. My doctrine shall drop as the rain, my speech shall distil as the dew, as heavy rains upon the grass, and as showers upon herbs. 3. When I call on the name of the Lord, ascribe ye greatness unto our God. 4. J Ce is the rock, his word is perfect ; for all his ways are just ; the God of truth and without iniquity ; just and upright is he. G S # The word Torah means doctrine or law, and in some respects is analogous to the Homeric poems which originally formed a single epic, but which wTere later split into twenty-four parts each. This Torah is read in an annual cycle of fifty four portions as established in Babylonia or in a triennial cycle, as was the custom in Palestine. In all probability there never has been another people that surrounded its holy writings with such respect, transmitted them through the centuries with such self -sacrifice, and preserved them without change for more than two thousand years. It may be stated that the blessings over the Torah are the oldest benediction extant. - 1927 Copyright The Genealogical Society of Pennsylvania PGM Vol X No.1 Forms of Jewish Ceremonial and Worship. 14 BELLS. The use of bells is also associated with the robe of the high priest, which had seventy two golden bells placed on the gar ment so that the sound of his approach should be heard on his entrance to the Holy of Holies. In some instances bells are added to the curtain that hangs before the ark. The placing of the bells on the scrolls of the Law is in a measure a crowning j in Judaical writings three crowns are referred to the crown of the Law, the crown of the priesthood , the royal crown ; but better than all, 1 ‘ the crown of a good name, ’ ? and whilst there is much ceremonial associated with the Jewish service, it is always subsidiary to the highest ethical conduct of life To quote from Heinrich Heine, with whom you are all familiar, in speaking of this Torah ( the Law ) , he says : “ The Jews, who appreciate the value of precious things, knew right well what they did when they left to their fate the golden and silver implements of sacrifice, the candlesticks and lamps, even the breast-plate of the High Priest adorned with great jewels, but saved the Bible. This was the real treasure of the Temple, and was not left a prey to the flames nor to the fury of Titus Vespasian. ” David Dudley Field stated , “ A nation of free men on this continent first rent the shackles that religious domination had been forging for centuries, and solemnly decreed that no man should dare intercept the radiance of the Almighty upon the human soul ” And in closing this description I may be permitted to allude to the blessings of toleration and education that are freely extended to all in this dear home of liberty. ’o none more than to the Jew does this appeal, since until recent years educational institutions in Europe were closed to those of the Jewish faith, a restriction that exists in some sections even at the present time. The Jewish people are a small minority in this land, and although, as some would say, “ it is our right as American citizens, ” it would seem better to express gratitude and loving kindness to the spirit of equity and justice that has made , and continues to support, tolera tion in its broadest form. - , - — G S P . . - 1927 Copyright The Genealogical Society of Pennsylvania PGM Vol X No.1 Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela,. 15 II. G S P THE ITINERARY OF A TWELFTH-CENTURY SCHOLAR . May I turn now to the second section of my address, namely the journey through various countries in Europe and Asia by a learned traveler between the years 1160 and 1173. I present it in the form of an extract from an ancient manuscript now in the British Museum. It was written in Hebrew in the year 1173 and is the diary of the eminent scholar and traveler Benjamin , who left his native city of Tudela in Spain in the year 1160 and journeyed for thirteen years. Benjamin ’s route lay through southern France, Italy, Greece, the Levant, Syria, Palestine and Mesopotamia to Bagdad and thence to Egypt. The diary was first published in 1543 in Hebrew in Constantinople. In 1894 Marcus Nathan Adler of London, a kinsman of mine, and a brother of the late Chief Rabbi of Great Britain, made a careful study of the original Hebrew manuscript and it is his English translation that is now used . The itinerary throws a light upon an interesting stage in the development of nations. Mohammed in 622 transformed a cluster of Bedouins into a warlike people An Arabian empire was formed reaching from the Ebro to the Indus. Great cities such as Cairo and Bagdad were built ; schools and universities arose in all parts of the empire and commercial activities soon produced power and wealth Rabbi Benjamin in taking this journey was actuated by a desire to ascertain the condition in which the Jews lived in various countries that he might be able to reach. The Jews possessed a common language in the sacred tongue the Hebrew, and wherever they went they could rely upon a hospitable reception from their co-religionists. It should be remembered that the Jews of Spain at this period occupied positions of honor and dignity They were prominently identified with institutions of learning and were eminent in the professions of medicine, science and literature . . — . . ( t I journeyed first from my native town to the city of Sarakosta the name is derived from Caesar Augustus and thence by way of the river Ebro to Tortosa . ” ( Figs. 1, 2, 3.) t From there I went a journey of two days to the ancient city of Tarragona with its Cyclopean and Greek buildings, — — £ 1927 Copyright The Genealogical Society of Pennsylvania PGM Vol X No.1 Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela. 16 4 ( These remains are historic walls of enormous unhewn blocks of stone as well as the remains of Roman aqueducts, tombs, amphitheatres, &c.) the like thereof is not found among any of the buildings in the country of Sepharad ( Figs. 4, 5.) “ It is situated by the sea and two days’ journey from the city of Barcelona. Three days ’ journey takes one to Nar bonne, which is a city pre-eminent for learning, thence the Law goes forth to all countries. Sages and great and illus trious men abide here. At their head is Rabbi Kalonymos of the seed of David ( this is the name used for a leading char acter in George Eliot ’s Daniel Deronda ) He possesses the hereditaments and lands given him by the ruler of the city, of which no man can forcibly dispossess him. Thence to Montpelier, a place well situated for commerce, which is about a parasang ( 3% English miles ) from the sea, and men come for business from the land of Algarve ( The King of Portugal is even now styled ‘ King of Algarves ’ ) from Lombardy, Rome, Egypt, Palestine, Greece, France, Asia and England to do business largely through the medium of the Genoese and Pisans. There are many houses of learning devoted to the study of the Talmud ; in the Jewish community are men both rich and charitable who lend a helping hand to all that come to them. Thence to Posquieres where lives Rabbi Abraham, an energetic and wise man ; people come to him to learn the Law ; of those who are without means he pays the expenses. Nearby is Bourg de St Giles ( Fig 6 ) , a plaee of pilgrimage for Gentiles who come here from the ends of the earth. Thence to Marseilles, a city of princely and wise citizens with two Jewish congregations and an academy of learned men. — . - - G S P . . . . NOTRE DAME DE LA GARDE AT MARSEILLES. ( Fig. 7 ) When Mary and Martha, at the time of Lazarus, left Jerusalem they reached Marseilles and founded this ancient and celebrated abbey which was the retreat of St Giles ; to it King Vamba of the Visigoths gave a foundation for the monks of St Benedict. The establishment grew in importance until the Middle Ages, when the Abbots of St Giles were powerful seigneurs of Languedoc One cannot leave Marseilles without giving a thought to the origin of the song of ‘‘ The Marseillaise, ’’ which has a feature exceptional in character The author, Rouget de Lisle, an engineer and captain in the army, was dining with the Mayor . . . . . 1927 Copyright The Genealogical Society of Pennsylvania PGM Vol X No.1 P S G 1927 Copyright The Genealogical Society of Pennsylvania PGM Vol X No.1 P S G 1927 Copyright The Genealogical Society of Pennsylvania PGM Vol X No.1 Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela . 17 of Strasbourgh ; during the evening a wish was expressed that some poetical inspiration might appeal to the national enthusiasm Rouget, a poet and musician , sat at the piano and composed the words and music by an inspiration. Mon signor Kieran states that the music was of Church origin and was adopted by Rouget. The piece at first was called * 4 Chant de l ’armee du Rhin ” Song of the Army of the Rhine and only received its name of Marseillaise from its adoption by tbe Provencal volunteers who were prominent in the storming of the Tuileries. . - — — “ Prom Marseilles by ship in four days to Genoa, a city P ^ P surrounded by a wall and governed by judges whom they appoint at pleasure. Bach householder has a tower, from the top of which they fight with each other. They have command of the sea. They build ships which they call galleys and make predatory attacks upon Christian and Mohammedan places alike ( the text has it Edom and Ishmael ) bringing back rich spoil. They are constantly at war with the men of Pisa, a two days’ journey Pisa is a great city with ten thousand turreted houses for time of battle ; there is neither king nor prince, only the judges appointed by themselves. Thence to the great city of Rome, the head of the kingdoms of Christendom, containing many Jews who occupy an honor able position and pay no tribute Great scholars reside here, one is Rabbi Jachiel, an official of the Pope ( Alexander III ) , Rome is divided into two parts by the river Tiber ; in one is the great church which they call St Peter ’s of Rome The great palace of Julius Caesar was also in Rome. ( Fig 8.) i 'here are eighty palaces belonging to eighty kings, who lived there, each called Imperator, from Tarquinius to Pepin, who freed the land of Sepharad ( Spain ) from Islam ( Mohammed ) and was father of Charlemagne. Here also is the palace of Vespasianus, a great and very strong building ” G S . - . . . . . The Coliseum with its 365 sections according to the days of the solar year. Here battles were fought ; in olden times 100,000 men were slain, and their bones remain piled up to the present day. In the church of St. John in the Lateran there are two bronze columns taken from the Temple of Solomon . 1927 Copyright The Genealogical Society of Pennsylvania PGM Vol X No.1 18 Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela , “ The Church of St. John Lateran was founded by Con- stantine ; in it the popes were crowned, it being the Mother Church of Rome. “ The Arch of Titus is situated on the Via Sacra and on it may be seen representations of the captured vessels of the Temple referred to. The illustration shown is that of the Roman soldiers without weapons crowned with laurels, and carrying the seven branched candlestick, and the golden table upon which are leaning the sacred trumpets ’ 7 ( Fig. 9.) - . , « 'his is the only physical exhibit of the Temple vessels that has come down to us through the ages and accurately confirms their description in the Pentateuch. P n front there is a statue of Constantinus, the great, who built Constantinople, after whom it was named ; the bronze horse is overlaid with gold. Thence four days to Capua, a large town built by King Capays. It is a fine city but the water is bad and the . - S country fever stricken From there one goes to Sorrento, built by Zur when he fled in fear of David the King The sea has risen and covered portions of the ancient city. A spring issues forth from underneath the ground, containing the oil which is called petroleum ; people colleet it from the surface of the water and use it medicinally. There are also hot water springs to the number of about twenty, and every man who has any disease can go and bathe in them and be cured. Thence a man can travel fifteen miles along a road under the mountains ( constructed by Csesar Augustus ) Fortifica tions on the mountains and be ow were built, reaching as far as the City of Naples; a very strong place lying upon the sea board, founded by the Greeks. Thence by sea to the City of Salerno, and from there to Amalfi, whose inhabitants and merchants engage in trade but do not sow or reap.” ( Fig. 10.) . G - . - + “ They dwell upon high hills and lofty crags and buy . everything for money Nevertheless they have an abundance of fruit, for it is a land of vineyards and olives, of gardens and plantations, and no one can go to war with them . 1927 Copyright The Genealogical Society of Pennsylvania PGM Vol X No.1 P S G 1927 Copyright The Genealogical Society of Pennsylvania PGM Vol X No.1 Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela . 19 “ Thence to the dominions of Emanuel, King of the Greeks, . . and to the foot of the hills of Wallachia ( modem Roumania ) The Wallachians are as swift as hinds and speed down from the mountains to despoil and ravage the land of the Greeks No man can go up and do battle against them and no king can rule over them They do not hold fast to the faith of the Nazarenes but give themselves Jewish names They call the Jews their brethren, and though they rob them, they refrain from killing as they kill the Greeks. They are altogether lawless. i 6 Thence by way of Salonica and Abydos to Constantinople, which is the capital of the whole land of Javan, which is called Greece. All sorts of merchants come here from Babylon, Persia, Media, Egypt, the land of Canaan and the empire of Russia, Hungary, Lombardy and Sepharad ( Spain ) . It is a busy city and none like it except Bagdad i t The Church of Santa Sophia is the seat of the Pope of the Greeks since they do not obey the Pope of Rome. Quantities of wealth beyond control are brought as tribute from the islands, eastles and villages, and the like of this wealth is not to be found in any other church in the world ; there are pillars and lamps of silver and gold, more than a man can count Close to the walls is the Hippodrome ; every year, on the festival of the birth of Jesus, a great entertainment is given there ; men from all the races of the world come before the King and Queen with jugglery ; and they introduce lions, leopards, bears and wild asses, and they engage them in combat with one another ; and the same thing is done with birds. King Emanuel built a great palace on the seacoast called Blachernae ; he overlaid its columns and walls with gold and silver and engraved thereon representations of the battles of his day, and of his own combats. His throne was of gold and precious stone and a golden crown was suspended by a gold chain over the throne. It was inlaid with jewels of priceless value and at night no lights were required , for every one could see by the lights which the stones gave forth 1 ‘ The Greek inhabitants are very rich in gold and precious stones and they go clothed in garments of silk with gold embroidery and they ride horses and look like princes. They hire warriors called Barbarians to fight with the Snltans of the Turks, for the natives are not warlike but are as women who have no strength to fight. J 5 . . S P . G . . 1927 Copyright The Genealogical Society of Pennsylvania - PGM Vol X No.1 Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela . 20 Benjamin visited many places in Greece, finally reaching Antioch, and says : “ This is the great city Antiochus the King built, which lies by a lofty mountain ; at the top is a well from which water is directed through 20 subterranean passages to the houses of the great men of the City.’’ He goes on to describe the A1 Hashishim who live at the foot of Leb anon, i i They follow their Sheik, at whose word they go out and come in They are faithful to each other but a source of terror to their neighbors, killing even Kings ” ( the name Hashishim means hemp smokers and is the origin of the word assassin ) . Marco Polo describes the Sheik as providing a sequestered valley in which every conceivable enjoyment was offered ; luxurious palaces, delightful gardens, fair damsels skilled in music, dancing and song. In this paradise the man to be sent on a hazardous enterprise, after a sleeping potion, was placed. After a week ’s revel the potion was negatived and the young man awoke to find himself in the presence of the Sheik, ready to embark upon any desperate errand com manded by the ruler , - . P - - . Thence to Beirut and to Saida, which is Sidon. The Druses, Pagans of a lawless character, live nearby. They are steeped in vice ; on their one feast day in each year both men and women eat and drink together and then they exchange their wives. They say that the soul of a good man goes into the body of a new- born child ; that of a bad man into the body of a dog or an ass. t t Prom Sidon to New Tyre ; there is no harbor like this in the whole world. The Jews own seagoing vessels and are makers of that fine Tyrian glassware prized in all countries. i i In the vicinity is sugar of a high class, for men plant it and people come from all lands to buy. By boat one can see ancient Tyre with its castles, market-places, streets and palaces in the bed of the sea. l One day ’s journey to Acre ; on the other side Mount Car mel where is the cave of Elijah ; on the top the overturned altar which Elijah repaired in the days of Ahab. ” ( Kings G S i i - i • \ ,) xvm * * - Benjamin next visited Capernaum, Csesarea, Nablous ( An cient Scheehem ) , Mount Gilboa, Ajalon , Gibeon , finally arriv ing at Jerusalem. 1927 Copyright The Genealogical Society of Pennsylvania PGM Vol X No.1 Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela . 21 “ A small city fortified by walls full of Jacobites, Syrians, Greeks, Georgians and Franks. The lower portion of the wall of the Tower of David is of the ancient foundation. There are 400 knights in the hospital ( Knights of St. John ) and 300 Templars in which was the palace of Solomon. The Knights issue therefrom every day for military exercise. Here is the great church called the Sepulchre, the burialplace of Jesus, unto which the Christians make pilgrimages The western wall is of the Holy of Holies and thither come all the Jews to pray. i Attached to the palace are Solomon ’s stables, a substantial structure of large stones. “ In the neighborhood is a great spring called the waters of Si loam. From the Valley of Jehoshafat one ascends the Mount of Olives with the sea of Sodom in the distance. Facing Jerusalem for three miles are sepulchres of the Israelites which formerly bore dated inscriptions, but the Christians removed the stones, employing them in building their houses J f i i i i . l £ P i . S Benjamin finally reached Damascus, and describes it : A city of large extent with gardens and plantations over 15 miles, a district rich in fruit. The river Amana flows thro’ the city and by aqueducts is conveyed to the houses of the great people and into the streets and market places. The river Pliarpar flows thro’ their gardens and plantations. tL Here is a wall of crystal glass with apertures according to the days of the year, and as the sun ’s rays enter in succession , the hours of the day can be told by a graduated dial In the palace are chambers built of gold and glass, and if people walk around the wall they are able to see one ani £ G li . . other “ Thence a day ’s journey to Baalbec which Solomon built for the daughter of Pharaoh. The palace is built of large stones and there are no spaces between. J 7 Finally Benjamin reached Bagdad : “ A great city and the residence of the Caliph j he is at the head of the Mohammedan religion , occupying a similar position to that held by the Pope over the Christians. His palace is three miles in extent, wherein is a park with all manner of animals, birds, game, and a lake full of fish. £ t The great Caliph knows all languages and is well versed in the Law of Israel, reading and writing the holy language . 1927 Copyright The Genealogical Society of Pennsylvania PGM Vol X No.1 Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela , 22 Each of his brothers and the members of his family has an abode in his palace, but are fettered in chains of iron and guards are placed so that they may not rise against the great . Caliph “ Once a year on the feast of Ramazan, the Caliph issues forth from his palace riding on a mule, attired in royal robes of gold, silver and fine linen ; on his head a turban adorned with precious stones, all covered with a black shawl, implying that all his glory will be covered by darkness on the day of death * * . Thence to Babylon which is the Babel of old ; the ruins thereof are 30 miles in extent. The ruins of the Palace of Nebuchadnezzar are still to be seen there ’ * i i Near at hand is the Synagogue of Daniel, which is ancient. Thence it is four miles to the Tower of Babel, which was built of bricks ; the foundation is two miles in length ; the tower 40 by 200 cubits. At every 10 cubits there are slopes by which one can ascend to the top. The Zigarettes rise by successive terraces connected by inclined planes. “ Thence it is three parasangs to the Synagogue of Ezekiel of blessed memory by the river Euphrates. ( Fig. 14. ) ‘* A gathering takes place yearly when the scroll of the Law written by the prophet is read. A large house belonging to the sanctuary is filled with books from the time of the first and second temples, and he who has no sons consecrates his books to its use. * Thence through the deserts more than 21 days to the ruins of Shushan ( Susa ) , the site of the palace of King Ahashuerus ( lately identified as Xerxes ) . Here are the remains of a large structure of great antiquity ” i i S P . ( G w n 1 m | + * . # a Tomb of Esther and Mordecai : Ahashuerus had deposed his Queen Vashti because she refused to show her charms at a public festival. Esther, on account of her great beauty and modesty, was chosen Queen. At this time Hainan was Grand Vizier, and because Mordecai the Jew ( cousin to Queen Esther, whose religion was unknown to the Persian King ) refused to kneel to him, Hainan conceived the idea of exterminating the entire Jewish race in the Persian Kingdom. This was avoided by the tact of Queen Esther. ( Fig. 13.) , 1927 Copyright The Genealogical Society of Pennsylvania PGM Vol X No.1 P S G 1927 Copyright The Genealogical Society of Pennsylvania PGM Vol X No.1 P S G 1927 Copyright The Genealogical Society of Pennsylvania PGM Vol X No.1 23 Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela . ‘' In a nearby city in front of one of the Synagogues is the sepulchre of Daniel.’ * Tomb of Daniel : Tradition has it that the remains of the prophet brought good fortune, therefore controversy arose between the inhabitants of the two banks of the river ; those living on the side of Daniel ’s grave were rich and happy, whilst those on the opposite side were poor and in want, hence they agreed to have the bier resting alternately one year on each side, but finally it was fastened by chains in the middle of the bridge. ( Pig. 12. ) “ And now begins the land of Media. At Amadia there P arose this day 10 years ago (1160) a man named David Alroy, well versed in the Law and secular literature. He conceived the idea of rebelling against the King of Persia, saying, ‘ I am sent to capture Jerusalem and to free the Jews from the yoke of the Gentiles. f > J S ( Benjamin Disraeli has written a novel with Alroy as the character.) There are many pages descriptive of scenes and incidents in the Orient but we must pass on. “ Thence by a journey of 50 days through the great desert called Sahara ; when the wind rises it covers the caravans with sand and many die from suffocation At Pithon unto this day can be seen the ruins of the buildings which our forefathers erected there.” These have been identified as the ruins of the Treasure City of Rameses II mentioned in the 1st chapter, 11th verse, of Exodus. The chambers are deep and rectangular in form, without doors, the corn being poured in from above. Now follows a detailed description of the Nile, concluding with a reference to “ A pillar is there of marvelous workmanship, the like of which cannot be seen throughout the world This is G . T . ancient Memphis. ” Thence to Alexandria built by Alexander of Macedon , It is constructed over a hollow by means of arches and with great understanding ; the streets are wide and straight, so that a man can look along them for a mile from gate to gate In the harbor is the light-house, on top of which is a mirror, wherein could be seen at a distance of 20 days’ journey any ship that could attempt to attack or molest the city. To this i i . 1927 Copyright The Genealogical Society of Pennsylvania PGM Vol X No.1 24 Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela . day it is a landmark, for one can see it at a distance of 100 miles by day and at night the keeper lights a torch. > y Josephus refers to the Pharos, and Strabo describes it as one of the wonders of the world. £ £ Thence it takes 20 days by sea to Messina and thence to Palermo. Ships overladen with silver and gold are there, belonging to the King, who takes pleasure trips in them with his women , ( Fig. 11. ) Thence to Bohemia, called by the Jews who dwell there Canaan because the Slavs sell their sons and daughters to other nations. These are the men of Russia, which is a great empire stretching from the gates of Prague to the gates of Kieff . No one issues forth from his house in winter on account * P of the snow. The Kingdom of France is a journey of six days. Paris belongs to King Louis. Scholars are there who study the Law day and night. They are charitable and hospitable to all travelers and are as brothers to the Jews. ’ ’ S The diary closes with the words “ finished and completed ’ * with this invocation : “ May God, the Blessed One, have Mercy upon us, and G upon them.’’ 1927 Copyright The Genealogical Society of Pennsylvania PGM Vol X No.1